Harnessing Advanced Photocatalytic Oxidation for the Degradation of Drug Waste in Wastewater
Keywords:
- Pharmaceutical Drugs, Advanced oxidation processes, Conventional methods, Wastewater treatment plants, Photocatalytic degradation
Abstract
Pharmaceutical Drugs (PDs), while essential for human healthcare, have emerged as significant environmental contaminants due to their widespread use, incomplete metabolism and improper disposal. These compounds persist in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, entering the environment through human excretion, hospital, waste water treatment plants, industrial effluents and agriculture runoff. Even at trace concentrations, pharmaceuticals exhibit bioactive properties that disrupt ecosystem functions, bioaccumulate in organisms and contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance, posing ecological and human health risks. Conventional treatment methods are largely ineffective at eliminating pharmaceutical contaminants (PCs), whereas Advanced oxidation processes provide a sustainable and efficient approach by degrading these PCs into non-toxic byproducts. This review critically discusses the sources, environmental fate and impacts of PCs, evaluate the limitations of existing treatment methods and highlights the recent advances in AOPs based technologies for pollutant removal. This review also discusses future research directions, emphasizing the development of cost-effective, stable and highly efficient photocatalysts, alongside enhanced environmental monitoring to achieve long-term mitigation of pharmaceutical pollution and safeguard both human and ecosystem health.
Downloads
References
1. Harrison, R.K., Phase II and phase III failures: 2013–2015. Nature reviews Drug discovery, 2016. 15(12): p. 817-818.
2. Bock, K.W., Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) functions in NAD+ metabolism, myelopoiesis and obesity. Biochemical pharmacology, 2019. 163: p. 128-132.
3. Hutchinson, L. and R. Kirk, High drug attrition rates—where are we going wrong? Nature reviews Clinical oncology, 2011. 8(4): p. 189-190.
4. Prajapati, R.N., et al., Recent advances in pharmaceutical design: unleashing the potential of novel therapeutics. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2024. 25(16): p. 2060-2077.
5. Yu-Ping, T., et al., Modern research thoughts and methods on bio-active components of TCM formulae. Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines, 2022. 20(7): p. 481-493.
6. Khan, H.K., M.Y.A. Rehman, and R.N. Malik, Fate and toxicity of pharmaceuticals in water environment: An insight on their occurrence in South Asia. Journal of environmental management, 2020. 271: p. 111030.
7. Mu, K., et al., The biological fate of pharmaceutical excipient β-cyclodextrin: Pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, excretion, and metabolism of β-cyclodextrin in rats. Molecules, 2022. 27(3): p. 1138.
8. Yang, Y., et al., Which micropollutants in water environments deserve more attention globally? Environmental Science & Technology, 2021. 56(1): p. 13-29.
9. Branchet, P., et al., Pharmaceuticals in the marine environment: What are the present challenges in their monitoring? Science of the Total Environment, 2021. 766: p. 142644.
10. Valdez-Carrillo, M., et al., Pharmaceuticals as emerging contaminants in the aquatic environment of Latin America: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2020. 27(36): p. 44863-44891.
11. Bavumiragira, J.P., J.n. Ge, and H. Yin, Fate and transport of pharmaceuticals in water systems: A processes review. Science of The Total Environment, 2022. 823: p. 153635.
12. Mechelke, J., et al., Enantiomeric fractionation during biotransformation of chiral pharmaceuticals in recirculating water-sediment test flumes. Environmental science & technology, 2020. 54(12): p. 7291-7301.
13. Kazakova, J., et al., Monitoring of pharmaceuticals in aquatic biota (Procambarus clarkii) of the Doñana National Park (Spain). Journal of Environmental Management, 2021. 297: p. 113314.
14. Adedipe, D.T., et al., Occurrence and potential risks of pharmaceutical contamination in global Estuaries: A critical review and analysis. Environment International, 2024. 192: p. 109031.
15. White, D., et al., Tracking changes in the occurrence and source of pharmaceuticals within the River Thames, UK; from source to sea. Environmental pollution, 2019. 249: p. 257-266.
16. Low, K., et al., Prevalence and risk assessment of antibiotics in riverine estuarine waters of Larut and Sangga Besar River, Perak. Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 2021. 39(1): p. 122-134.
17. Chen, C., et al., Efficacy of a large-scale integrated constructed wetland for pesticide removal in tail water from a sewage treatment plant. Science of The Total Environment, 2022. 838: p. 156568.
18. Chen, C., et al., Pesticide degradation in an integrated constructed wetland: Insights from compound-specific isotope analysis and 16S rDNA sequencing. Science of The Total Environment, 2022. 841: p. 156758.
19. Herrero-Villar, M., M.A. Taggart, and R. Mateo, Medicated livestock carcasses and landfill sites: Sources of highly toxic veterinary pharmaceuticals and caffeine for avian scavengers. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2023. 459: p. 132195.
20. Nagarajan, R.P., et al., Environmental DNA methods for ecological monitoring and biodiversity assessment in estuaries. Estuaries and Coasts, 2022. 45(7): p. 2254-2273.
21. Ohoro, C., et al., Distribution and chemical analysis of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environmental systems: a review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 2019. 16(17): p. 3026.
22. Karungamye, P., et al., The pharmaceutical disposal practices and environmental contamination: A review in East African countries. HydroResearch, 2022. 5: p. 99-107.
23. Ashiwaju, B.I., C.G. Uzougbo, and O.F. Orikpete, Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals: A comprehensive review. Matrix Science Pharma, 2024. 7(3): p. 85-94.
24. Pinto, I., M. Simões, and I.B. Gomes, An overview of the impact of pharmaceuticals on aquatic microbial communities. Antibiotics, 2022. 11(12): p. 1700.
25. Marwa, K.J., et al., Disposal practices of expired and unused medications among households in Mwanza, Tanzania. PloS one, 2021. 16(2): p. e0246418.
26. Kusturica, M.P., et al., Consumer willingness to pay for a pharmaceutical disposal program in Serbia: A double hurdle modeling approach. Waste Management, 2020. 104: p. 246-253.
27. Wang, K., et al., Antibiotic residues in wastewaters from sewage treatment plants and pharmaceutical industries: Occurrence, removal and environmental impacts. Science of the Total Environment, 2021. 788: p. 147811.
28. Palli, L., et al., Occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants of Tuscany: An effect-based approach to evaluate the potential environmental impact. International journal of hygiene and environmental health, 2019. 222(4): p. 717-725.
29. Waleng, N.J. and P.N. Nomngongo, Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environmental waters: African and Asian perspectives. Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 2022. 4: p. 50-66.
30. Esseku, Y.Y., et al., Drug disposal and ecopharmacovigilance practices in the Krowor Municipality, Ghana. Journal of Toxicology, 2022. 2022(1): p. 7674701.
31. Baroka, I.U., Pharmaceutical waste management: sources, environmental impacts, and sustainable solutions. Pharmacy Reports, 2025. 5(1): p. 95-95.
32. Roy, B., R. Basak, and U. Rai, Impact of xenoestrogens on sex differentiation and reproduction in teleosts. Aquaculture and Fisheries, 2022. 7(5): p. 562-571.
33. Paut Kusturica, M., M. Jevtic, and J.T. Ristovski, Minimizing the environmental impact of unused pharmaceuticals: Review focused on prevention. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2022. 10: p. 1077974.
34. Grzesiuk, M., et al., Impact of fluoxetine on herbivorous zooplankton and planktivorous fish. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2023. 42(2): p. 385-392.
35. Pan, M. and L. Chu, Transfer of antibiotics from wastewater or animal manure to soil and edible crops. Environmental Pollution, 2017. 231: p. 829-836.
36. Arnold, K.E., et al., Assessing the exposure risk and impacts of pharmaceuticals in the environment on individuals and ecosystems. 2013, The Royal Society.
37. del Carmen Gómez-Regalado, M., et al., Bioaccumulation/bioconcentration of pharmaceutical active compounds in aquatic organisms: Assessment and factors database. Science of the Total Environment, 2023. 861: p. 160638.
38. Mackuľak, T., et al., Pharmaceuticals, drugs, and resistant microorganisms—environmental impact on population health. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 2019. 9: p. 40-48.
39. Lai, C.-C., et al., Increased antimicrobial resistance during the COVID-19 pandemic. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 2021. 57(4): p. 106324.
40. Zainab, S.M., et al., Antibiotics and antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) in groundwater: A global review on dissemination, sources, interactions, environmental and human health risks. Water research, 2020. 187: p. 116455.
41. Ianiro, G., H. Tilg, and A. Gasbarrini, Antibiotics as deep modulators of gut microbiota: between good and evil. Gut, 2016. 65(11): p. 1906-1915.
42. Zhang, S., et al., Tetracycline inhibits the nitrogen fixation ability of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) nodules in black soil by altering the root and rhizosphere bacterial communities. Science of The Total Environment, 2024. 908: p. 168047.
43. LaPlante, K.L., et al., Re-establishing the utility of tetracycline-class antibiotics for current challenges with antibiotic resistance. Annals of Medicine, 2022. 54(1): p. 1686-1700.
44. Ahmad, F., D. Zhu, and J. Sun, Environmental fate of tetracycline antibiotics: degradation pathway mechanisms, challenges, and perspectives. Environmental Sciences Europe, 2021. 33(1): p. 64.
45. Shariati, A., et al., The resistance mechanisms of bacteria against ciprofloxacin and new approaches for enhancing the efficacy of this antibiotic. Frontiers in public health, 2022. 10: p. 1025633.
46. Domingues, R.R., et al., Fluoxetine-induced perinatal morbidity in a sheep model. Frontiers in Medicine, 2022. 9: p. 955560.
47. Renemane, L. and E. Rancans, Sertraline induced acute hepatocellular liver injury in patient with major depressive disorder: a case report. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2024. 15: p. 1456455.
48. Faria, M., et al., Developmental exposure to sertraline impaired zebrafish behavioral and neurochemical profiles. Frontiers in physiology, 2022. 13: p. 1040598.
49. Li, Y., et al., Sertraline inhibits top-down forces (predation) in microbial food web and promotes nitrification in sediment. Environmental Pollution, 2020. 267: p. 115580.
50. Sathishkumar, P., et al., Occurrence, interactive effects and ecological risk of diclofenac in environmental compartments and biota-a review. Science of the total environment, 2020. 698: p. 134057.
51. Amanullah, A., et al., Development and challenges of diclofenac-based novel therapeutics: targeting cancer and complex diseases. Cancers, 2022. 14(18): p. 4385.
52. Hassan, I.Z., et al., Could the environmental toxicity of diclofenac in vultures been predictable if preclinical testing methodology were applied? Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2018. 64: p. 181-186.
53. Hodkovicova, N., et al., Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs caused an outbreak of inflammation and oxidative stress with changes in the gut microbiota in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Science of the Total Environment, 2022. 849: p. 157921.
54. Guiloski, I.C., et al., Effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac in freshwater fish Rhamdia quelen. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 2017. 139: p. 291-300.
55. de Martino, M., et al., Working towards an appropriate use of ibuprofen in children: an evidence-based appraisal. Drugs, 2017. 77: p. 1295-1311.
56. Wijaya, L., et al., Ecotoxicological effects of ibuprofen on plant growth of Vigna unguiculata L. Plants, 2020. 9(11): p. 1473.
57. Dasari, S. and P.B. Tchounwou, Cisplatin in cancer therapy: molecular mechanisms of action. European journal of pharmacology, 2014. 740: p. 364-378.
58. Li, D., et al., Anticancer drugs in the aquatic ecosystem: Environmental occurrence, ecotoxicological effect and risk assessment. Environment international, 2021. 153: p. 106543.
59. da Costa Araújo, A.P., et al., Anti-cancer drugs in aquatic environment can cause cancer: insight about mutagenicity in tadpoles. Science of the Total Environment, 2019. 650: p. 2284-2293.
60. Yadav, V., et al., Amelioration of cyclophosphamide-induced DNA damage, oxidative stress, and hepato-and neurotoxicity by Piper longum extract in rats: The role of γH2AX and 8-OHdG. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2023. 14: p. 1147823.
61. Draskau, M.K., et al., Human-relevant concentrations of the antifungal drug clotrimazole disrupt maternal and fetal steroid hormone profiles in rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 2021. 422: p. 115554.
62. Crowley, P. and H. Gallagher, Clotrimazole as a pharmaceutical: past, present and future. Journal of applied microbiology, 2014. 117(3): p. 611-617.
63. Melefa, T.D. and C.D. Nwani, Imidazole antifungal drug clotrimazole alters the behavior, brain acetylcholinesterase and oxidative stress biomarkers in African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 2021. 248: p. 109108.
64. do Prado, C.C.A., et al., Ecotoxicological effect of ketoconazole on the antioxidant system of Daphnia similis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 2021. 246: p. 109080.
65. Ahmed, T.A., et al., Study the antifungal and ocular permeation of ketoconazole from ophthalmic formulations containing trans-ethosomes nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics, 2021. 13(2): p. 151.
66. Shah, A.H. and M.A. Rather, Pharmaceutical residues: new emerging contaminants and their mitigation by nano-photocatalysis. Advances in nano research, 2021. 10(4): p. 397-414.
67. Crini, G. and E. Lichtfouse, Advantages and disadvantages of techniques used for wastewater treatment. Environmental chemistry letters, 2019. 17(1): p. 145-155.
68. Jain, R., M.K. Camarillo, and W.T. Stringfellow, Drinking water security for engineers, planners, and managers. 2014: Elsevier.
69. Attrah, M., et al., A review on medical waste management: treatment, recycling, and disposal options. Environments, 2022. 9(11): p. 146.
70. Rayaroth, M.P., et al., Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) based wastewater treatment-unexpected nitration side reactions-a serious environmental issue: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022. 430: p. 133002.
71. Wang, J. and S. Wang, Reactive species in advanced oxidation processes: Formation, identification and reaction mechanism. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020. 401: p. 126158.
72. Aziz, K.H.H., et al., Pharmaceutical pollution in the aquatic environment: advanced oxidation processes as efficient treatment approaches: a review. Materials Advances, 2025.
73. Ravi, R. and A.K. Golder, Photocatalytic and biological degradation processes to mineralize pharmaceutically active compounds and catalyst recovery: a review. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 2025. 523: p. 216267.
74. Jiang, Y., et al., Recent progress in Fenton/Fenton-like reactions for the removal of antibiotics in aqueous environments. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2022. 236: p. 113464.
75. Zhang, Q., et al., Insight into antibiotic removal by advanced oxidation processes (AOPs): Performance, mechanism, degradation pathways, and ecotoxicity assessment. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2024. 500: p. 157134.
76. da Silva, S.W., et al., Advanced electrochemical oxidation processes in the treatment of pharmaceutical containing water and wastewater: A review. Current Pollution Reports, 2021. 7(2): p. 146-159.
77. Pirsaheb, M., N. Moradi, and H. Hossini, Sonochemical processes for antibiotics removal from water and wastewater: a systematic review. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2023. 189: p. 401-439.
78. Wu, T., et al., Construction of a novel S-scheme heterojunction piezoelectric photocatalyst V-BiOIO3/FTCN and immobilization with floatability for tetracycline degradation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2023. 443: p. 130251.
79. Yang, H., C.-G. Lee, and J. Lee, Utilizing animal manure-derived biochar in catalytic advanced oxidation processes: A review. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 2023. 56: p. 104545.
80. Kulišťáková, A., Removal of pharmaceutical micropollutants from real wastewater matrices by means of photochemical advanced oxidation processes–a review. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 2023. 53: p. 103727.
81. Wang, Y.-Y., et al., Recent advances in non-metal doped titania for solar-driven photocatalytic/photoelectrochemical water-splitting. Journal of Energy Chemistry, 2022. 66: p. 529-559.
82. Ren, G., et al., Recent advances of photocatalytic application in water treatment: A review. Nanomaterials, 2021. 11(7): p. 1804.
83. Zhu, K., et al., Photocatalytic Degradation of Tetracycline Hydrochloride Using TiO2/CdS on Nickel Foam Under Visible Light and RSM–BBD Optimization. Catalysts, 2025. 15(2): p. 113.
84. Qian, W., et al., Photocatalytic Degradation of Tetracycline Hydrochloride by Mn/g-C3N4/BiPO4 and Ti/g-C3N4/BiPO4 Composites: Reactivity and Mechanism. Catalysts, 2023. 13(11): p. 1398.
85. Awang, H., T. Peppel, and J. Strunk, Photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac by nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dot-graphitic carbon nitride (CNQD). Catalysts, 2023. 13(4): p. 735.
86. Yazdanbakhsh, A., et al., Photocatalytic degradation and dechlorination mechanism of diclofenac using heterojunction Mn-doped tungsten trioxide (Mn-WO3) nanoparticles under LED visible light from aqueous solutions. Scientific Reports, 2024. 14(1): p. 29583.
87. Silva, M.C., et al., Green synthesis of Er-doped ZnO nanoparticles: an investigation on the methylene blue, eosin, and ibuprofen removal by photodegradation. Molecules, 2024. 29(2): p. 391.
88. Suwondo, K.P., et al., Remarkable Enhancement of TiO2–N Activity under Visible Light Exposure by Codoping with Cu from Electroplating Wastewater for Degradation of Amoxicillin Residual in Water Media. ACS omega, 2025. 10(8): p. 7722-7733.
89. Onkani, S.P., et al., Enhanced Aqueous Photo-Degradation of Ciprofloxacin and Tetracycline Using Ag-Decorated ZnO Plasmonic Catalyst. ACS Sustainable Resource Management, 2024. 1(10): p. 2294-2303.
90. Toolabi, A., et al., Photocatalytic Degradation of Acetaminophen by g-C3N4/CQD/Ag Nanocomposites from Aqueous Media. Journal of Composites Science, 2025. 9(5): p. 197.
91. Marizcal-Barba, A., et al., TiO2-La2O3 as photocatalysts in the degradation of naproxen. Inorganics, 2022. 10(5): p. 67.
92. Aoudjit, L., et al., Sunlight-Induced Photocatalytic Removal of Paracetamol Using Au-TiO2 Nanoparticles. Nanomaterials, 2025. 15(5): p. 358.
